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Ancient Mesopotamia

Welcome to our comprehensive section on Mesopotamia, the cradle of civilization! Situated in the fertile land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, Mesopotamia is a region of immense historical significance. Often referred to as the "land between the rivers," this ancient region of civilization emerged around 3500 BC and flourished for thousands of years, leaving an indelible mark on human history.

In this dedicated section, we invite you to embark on a journey through time, delving into the rich tapestry of Mesopotamian culture, society, and achievements. From the earliest Sumerian city-states to the mighty Babylonian empire, Mesopotamia witnessed the rise and fall of numerous civilizations, each contributing unique innovations and advancements that shaped the course of human development.

Explore the extraordinary achievements of Mesopotamia's remarkable people, who pioneered fundamental elements of civilization such as writing, law, architecture, mathematics, and astronomy. Discover the awe-inspiring ziggurats that reached towards the heavens, the meticulous cuneiform script that chronicled daily life, and the visionary rulers whose ambitions reshaped the region's destiny.

Uncover the intricate social structure of Mesopotamia, where kings, priests, warriors, and farmers played distinct roles in a complex societal framework. Learn about the religious beliefs that permeated every aspect of life and the intricate mythologies that captivated the hearts and minds of ancient Mesopotamians.

As you navigate this section, you will gain a deeper understanding of the legacy left by Mesopotamia, as its inventions and cultural achievements continue to resonate throughout history. Our aim is to provide you with a comprehensive resource that unveils the marvels of Mesopotamian civilization, allowing you to appreciate the profound impact it has had on the world we inhabit today.

History & Chronology of Ancient Mesopotamia

Sumer

Akkad

Babylon

Assyria

Achaemenid

Mesopotamian Figures

Sumerians

Akkadians

Babylonians

Achaemenids

Assyrians

Mesopotamian Places

Mesopotamian Cities

Mesopotamian Temples & Monuments

Mesopotamian Palaces

Mesopotamian Life

Mesopotamian Society & Culture

Mesopotamian Gods & Religion

Mesopotamian Knowledge

Mesopotamian Military & Warfare

Mesopotamian Artifacts

Mesopotamian Technology

Mesopotamian Writings

Other Mesopotamian Artifacts

The Legend of Lugalbanda, The First Sumerian Shaman

The Legend of Lugalbanda, The First Sumerian Shaman

According to the Sumerian King List , Lugalbanda was one of the kings who belonged to the First Dynasty of Uruk in Sumer in ancient Mesopotamia. What is particularly striking about Lugalbanda is the...
Cyrus the Great. Source: armin dara / CC BY-NC-SA 2.0.

Cyrus the Great – Conqueror or Uber Human Rights Activist?

Cyrus II of Persia (more commonly known as Cyrus the Great and called Cyrus the Elder by the ancient Greeks) was the founder of the Achaemenid Empire. Although there are various ancient sources for...
Mosaic depicting Persian Archers

The Master Archers of the Powerful Achaemenid Empire

In the ancient Near East, archery became the predominant means of launching sharp projectiles, replacing spear-throwing. The history of archery, however, may have originated further down south during...
The walls of the ancient Citadel of Erbil in Iraq as seen from the bazaar. Source: Levi Clancy / CC BY-SA 4.0

The Magnificent Citadel of Erbil - A True Archaeological Sandwich

The Iraqi city of Erbil is truly magnificent - and in many ways. With the settlement origins dating back at least 8,000 years, it is one of the world’s oldest continuously inhabited cities in the...
The Nurturing Goddess Ninsun: Worshipped by Ancient Mesopotamians and the Mother of Gilgamesh

The Nurturing Goddess Ninsun: Worshipped by Ancient Mesopotamians and the Mother of Gilgamesh

Ninsun is a female figure found in Sumerian mythology. She is a goddess whose parents are the deities Anu (the sky god) and Uras (a goddess of the earth). As a goddess, Ninsun was worshipped by the...
Sumerian Artifact with the Tree of Life. (swisshippo  / Adobe Stock)

Eden Revisited: The Sumerian Version

Sumer, in Mesopotamia, was called ‘the land of civilized kings’. It reached its peak around 6,500 years ago when it had the distinction of being a very advanced civilization with a sophisticated...
The Persian Empire used a satrapal system for local rulers. Source: Konstantin / Adobe Stock

Satraps of the Persian Empire – Rebellious Protectors of the Realm

The Achaemenid Empire was an ancient empire whose heartland was the region of Persis , in the southwestern part of modern-day Iran. At its greatest extent, the Achaemenids ruled over an empire that...
Four warriors of ‘The Immortals’, from the famous glazed brick friezes found in the Apadana (Darius the Great's palace) in Susa ( Wikimedia)

The Immortals: Elite and Formidable Army of the Persian Empire

The first Persian Empire (550 BC – 330 BC), called the Achaemenid Empire, is known for having an elite force of soldiers. Named the “Immortals” by Herodotus, this army consisted of a heavy infantry...
The so-called Abraham house at the Ur archaeological complex in southern Iraq is said to be the birthplace of the prophet Abraham (Ibrahim in Arabic). The "latest" Mesopotamian city discovered near Tell al-Duhaila is less than 20 miles (31 km) from Ur.      Source: Aziz1005 / CC BY 4.0

4,000-Year-Old Mesopotamian City Discovered In the Shadow Of Ur

A 4,000-year-old urban settlement has been discovered on the road to Ur in modern Iraq. Researchers suspect the discovery represents a lost Mesopotamian city capital that was founded on the ashes of...
The Epic of Gilgamesh. Source: Luca Oleastri / Adobe.

The Epic of Gilgamesh Unveiled: Searching For a Way to the Home Planet

The Epic of Gilgamesh is regarded as one of mankind’s greatest literary and historical works. Many authors have studied the text in an effort to explain the nature of Gilgamesh’s tyranny and his...
Babylonian clay tablet shows Pythagorean Triples were used 3,700 years ago.           Source: University of New South Wales

Mathematician Finds Pythagorean Triples On Ancient Babylonian Tablet

A University of New South Wales, Sydney mathematician has discovered the oldest example of applied geometry ever recorded, the university’s newsroom reports . The tablet illustrates the use of...

The House of Uruk, Greatest of Sumerian Heroes

The greatest of all Sumerian heroes were said to have belonged to the first House of Uruk. For the Sumerians, this House of Uruk was not just another royal house, for them it was one of the greatest...
Xerxes

Xerxes The Great: The Powerful Persian King Whose Death Destroyed an Empire

Xerxes I, also known as Xerxes the Great, was a 5th century Achaemenid king of the Persian empire. He is best known for leading the massive invasion of Greece, marked by the battles of Thermopylae,...
Meeting Between Cambyses II and Psammetichus III, as imaginatively recreated by the French painter Adrien Guignet

The Battle of Pelusium: Psychological warfare leads Persians to victory

The Battle of Pelusium is an historically important battle that took place in the 6th century BC, in which the Egyptians were decisively defeated by the Persians, and the Persians became the new...
Queen Kubaba relief in the form of a goddess. Source: Left; Public Domain Right; CC BY-SA 2.0 FR

The King List and Queen Kubaba: The First Recorded Queen of the Ancient World

From Cleopatra to Razia Sultan, history is filled with powerful women who defied the norms of their time. But have you ever heard of Queen Kubaba? Reigning over Sumer around 2,500 BC, she might just...
The National Museum of Iraq. Many of the pieces discovered at the ruins of Ur, arranged and labelled by Ennigaldi-Nanna, can be found here. Source: Jdx / CC BY-SA 4.0.

Hidden Women of History: Ennigaldi-Nanna, Curator of the World’s First Museum

“It belongs in a museum.” With these words, Indiana Jones , the world’s best-known fictional archaeologist , articulated an association between archaeologists, antiquities , and museums that has a...
Res Gestae Sargonis: Sargon The Great King Of Akkad

Res Gestae Sargonis: Sargon The Great King Of Akkad

The Akkadian Empire, founded by Sargon the Great, was the very first empire the world had seen, established in ancient Mesopotamia in about 2370 BC. This empire was remembered as having been...
Illustration of city in Mesopotamia.

The Great City of Uruk Became Sumerian Powerhouse of Technology, Architecture and Culture

Home to Gilgamesh, Uruk was the major force of urbanization and state formation during the 4th millennium BC. In Epic of Gilgamesh , the king is said to have built the city’s monumental walls. There...
Shahnameh (Book of Kings) Abu'l Qasim Firdausi (935–1020).

The Early Rulers of Persia, Part II: The Kayanian Dynasty

( Read Part I ) According to Persian epic tradition, the Kayanians were the second dynasty to rule the land which is known today as Iran. The Kayanians succeeded the Pishdadians, whose dynasty ended...
The Graeco-Bactrian Kingdom forged its own Greek identity, far from Greece. Source: Ksenia Tassel / Adobe Stock.

The Graeco-Bactrian Kingdom: Alexander The Great’s Easternmost Legacy

Alexander the Great was one of the finest and most successful military leaders the world has ever seen. In the 4th century BC he carved out one of the largest empires in history, stretching from...
Sumerian Etana Translated As Biblical Enoch

Sumerian Etana Translated As Biblical Enoch

The Biblical Enoch corresponds to a remarkable degree with the figure of Etana in Sumerian tradition. It seems reasonable to assume that they belong to the same original tradition handed down in the...
Standard of Ur mosaic, 26th century BC.

Both a Princess and a Priestess, What Did the First Known Author Have to Share with the World?

Louise Pryke / The Conversation The world’s first known author is widely considered to be Enheduanna, a woman who lived in the 23rd century BC in ancient Mesopotamia (approximately 2285 – 2250 BC)...
Ancient Mesopotamian boat unearthed near Uruk. Source: Julia Nador - Deutsches Archäologisches Institut / CC-BY-NC-ND

4,000-Year-Old Mesopotamian Boat Near Uruk Rescued

4,000 years ago, a boat sank onto the bed of a channel of the Euphrates River, near the ancient city of Uruk. Now, archaeologists working in modern-day southern Iraq have been forced to conduct an...
Ruins of ancient Persepolis, Iran, with the columns of the Apadana Hall on the right. Source: pawopa3336 / Adobe Stock.

Apadana – The Everlasting Hall of the Achaemenids

Throughout countless centuries, across all kinds of different epochs, the great hypostyle hall of Apadana has been an impressive source of wonder and inspiration for all manner of folk. This once...

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