8 Ancient Cultures Practicing Cannibalism Through the Ages

When we think of cannibalism today it usually conjures up images of characters like Hannibal Lecter. In reality, many cultures practiced cannibalism throughout history. Therefore, while it may be a topic that invokes unease, exploring these instances can provide valuable insight into the multifaceted aspects of human behavior and survival. From the remote tribes of Papua New Guinea to Renaissance-era European medicine men, these cultures offer a glimpse into the extremes to which humans have gone in the quest for sustenance, rituals, or, in some cases, sheer desperation.

Historic Cannibalism #1: The Fore Tribe and Kuru

The Fore Tribe, found in the eastern highlands of Papua New Guinea, practiced a deeply disturbing and unusual form of cannibalism for generations. Called endocannibalism, this macabre tradition was rooted in their beliefs about the transference of spirits and the outbreak of a mysterious ailment known as Kuru.

Whenever a relative died, the Fore would hold elaborate mortuary feasts during which they would consume the brain of the deceased. These feasts served a dual purpose: they were a way to honor the departed and to facilitate the passage of their spirits to the afterlife. Unfortunately, these feasts had an unintended side effect; the spread of Kuru, a neurodegenerative disease that was transmitted via the consumption of the brain. 

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The Fore remained oblivious to the connection between their cannibalistic practices and Kuru for a long time. However, the devastating effects of the disease could not be ignored. It caused a range of neurological symptoms, leading to trembling, loss of motor control and eventually death.

It wasn’t until the mid-20th century that Western researchers established a link between Kuru and cannibalism. With the help of outside assistance, the Fore Tribe gradually abandoned the practice. Today, they have transitioned to more modern and less perilous burial rituals, which have helped eliminate the threat of Kuru while still honoring their ancient traditions.

Child from the Fore tribe suffering from advanced Kuru, which was later connected to their practice of cannibalism. (Liberski PP / CC BY 3.0)

Historic Cannibalism #2: The Aztecs and Ritual Cannibalism

The Aztecs, a complex and powerful Mesoamerican civilization, have a pretty brutal but well-earned reputation. This is partly down to the fact they’re often associated with a disturbing facet of their culture: ritualistic cannibalism. This practice was intricately tied to their religious beliefs, which involved the consumption of human flesh, often as part of elaborate ceremonies and sacrifices.

The Aztecs believed that by offering the still-beating hearts of sacrificial victims to their gods, they could ensure the continuation of the sun's movement across the sky and prevent catastrophic events. Part of these rituals occasionally involved the consumption of the sacrificial victims' flesh as a means of sharing the divine power and honoring the gods further. The victims of these rituals were often prisoners of war, slaves or individuals chosen specifically for their purity.

The Aztecs continued the rituals up until the arrival of Spanish conquistadors in the 16th century. After this point, Aztec cannibalism was suppressed and eventually eradicated as the Aztec empire was conquered and Catholicism was introduced. 

Depiction of Aztec human sacrifice and cannibalism from a 16th century codex. (Public domain)

Historic Cannibalism #3: The Aghoris and the Ultimate Taboo

The Aghoris are a mystical and ascetic sect from India who have long been associated with some incredibly unconventional spiritual practices. Some of these include elements of cannibalism. These practices are deeply rooted in their belief system, which seeks to transcend conventional notions of purity and impurity and embrace all aspects of existence.

The Aghori believe spiritual enlightenment is attained by confronting and transcending the most taboo and repulsive aspects of life. Not many things are taboo-er, or more repulsive, than cannibalism. To the Aghori however, it is a means of absorbing the spiritual energy of the deceased, thereby breaking the cycle of life and death.

It does need to be pointed out that not all Aghoris practice cannibalism. Those who do are considered extreme even within their own sect (which is already regarded as being extreme). They typically consume the flesh of the deceased from cremation grounds or engage in symbolic acts, like eating from a skull.

The Aghori path is highly controversial and often misunderstood, as their practices can appear grotesque to outsiders. However, for those who follow this path, it is a way to confront the fundamental duality of life and death and to transcend the fear associated with these aspects of existence. In recent years, the Aghoris have drawn the attention of scholars and curious observers, shedding light on their unique philosophy and practices that continue to both fascinate and challenge prevailing societal norms in India.

An Aghori carrying a skull and alcohol circa 1875. (Public domain)

Historic Cannibalism #4: 16th to 17th Century Europeans

It might be surprising to learn that—historically—some of the largest consumers of human flesh have been Europeans. But that’s not all. In fact, the practice of cannibalism actually persisted until surprisingly recently.

During the 16th and 17th centuries, many Europeans consumed human flesh including mummies and human blood, for medicinal purposes. This strange and somewhat gruesome form of “medicinal cannibalism” was rooted in ancient beliefs and superstitions that certain parts of the body possessed powerful healing properties. 

Mummies were especially popular. Sourced from Egypt, they were ground into a fine powder and either ingested or applied topically. Europeans believed that the methods used to preserve the mummies, plus the exotic nature of their origins, lent them mystical curative powers. Mummy powder was marketed as the ultimate panacea for various ailments. 

Another popular medical concoction, theriac, contained human blood and was believed to have potent healing properties. It was used to treat everything from fevers to poisonings. While it originally came from ancient Greece, it found renewed popularity in medieval Europe during and after the plague. It was being sold across Europe by pharmacists as late as 1884. 

Of course, neither the consumption of mummies nor theriac actually had any medical benefit. These practices were born out of a lack of scientific understanding and a reliance on ancient texts and traditions. Thankfully, as medical knowledge advanced the European taste for human flesh faded away, replaced by more effective and evidence-based treatments.

Cannibalism in Brazil as described by Hans Staden in the 16th century. (Public domain)

Historic Cannibalism #5: The Xiximes Only Ate Their Own

The Xiximes were an indigenous group that once inhabited parts of what is now Northern Mexico. They were long rumored to have practiced cannibalism, but it’s only been in recent years that archaeologists have found evidence proving it. 

Historians believe cannibalism was deeply linked to the complex religious and cultural beliefs of the Xiximes. In particular, it seems cannibalism was tied to a kind of harvest festival they held every year.

After each corn harvest village elders would send out their warriors to hunt men from rival villages. They would often target lone farmers working in the fields, but would sometimes engage warriors from the other villages in pitched forest battles.

After killing their enemies, they would bring the bodies back to the village. If their victims were too big to carry, they would bring with them just the head and hands. The body parts were then cooked in large pans until the flesh fell from the bones. The flesh was then cooked again with beans and corn to make a kind of stew or soup. 

This human soup was then consumed during an all-night festival. The bones were kept until the next planting season when they were hung from the trees and roofs of their huts as a gift to the spirits who they believed helped the crops grow. 

The practice continued until the arrival of Spanish conquistadors. The Xiximes fought against the colonizers, but were ultimately subjugated and converted to Christianity. Missionaries sent tales of cannibalism back to Europe, but the stories were long believed to have been exaggerated. 

Interestingly, modern research has discovered there was an element of xenophobia to the Xiximes’ cannibalism. They only ate men from other Xiximes villages and never devoured their foreign enemies, be they other indigenous tribes or their European invaders. 

The best evidence that the Magdalenians practiced cannibalism has been found in Gough’s Cave in England, where a Paleolithic era human skull is believed to show signs of cannibalistic behavior. (Ethan Doyle White / CC BY-SA 3.0)

Historic Cannibalism #6: The Magdalenians - Ancient European Cannibals

The Magdalenians were prehistoric hunter-gatherers who lived in Europe during the Upper Paleolithic period, around 17,000 to 12,000 years ago. While we know that at least some of them practiced cannibalism, the extent and reasons for it are a subject of debate among archaeologists.

There are two schools of thought on the matter; Either cannibalism was born out of necessity or was a funerary rite and form of ancestor worship. The best evidence that the Magdalenians ate each other comes from Gough’s Cave in England. Human bone fragments found there bear distinctive bite marks that indicate cannibalism. 

The team who found the bones theorized that bite marks were evidence of a funerary rite where the consumption of human flesh could have held symbolic or ritual significance, potentially representing a way to honor the deceased, incorporate their strength or essence into the community, or serve as a form of ancestor worship.

Not everyone is convinced, however. The Magdalenians were hunter-gatherers, and another perspective posits they turned to cannibalism when food was scarce due to harsh environmental conditions. In this case, it had nothing to do with honoring the dead and was merely a last resort to ensure survival. 

The debate is likely to rage on for some time. The evidence is limited and nowhere near conclusive. Regardless of the reasons, the practice of cannibalism, if indeed present among the Magdalenians, offers valuable insights into the complexities of ancient cultures and the challenges they faced in their pursuit of survival and meaning in a harsh and unforgiving environment.

Historic Cannibalism #7: The Wari’ of Brazil Ate Friend and Foe Alike

The Wari’ people of the Amazon rainforest are unique in that they practice a special kind of dual cannibalism. Not only have they historically eaten both loved ones and their enemies, but they did so for vastly different reasons. 

Like other cultures on this list, they ate their own loved ones as a kind of funerary rite. Cannibalism was a ritualistic act rooted in mourning, honoring, and respecting the deceased. It was believed that by consuming the bodies of deceased family members and friends they could maintain a connection with their spirits and ensure their well-being. This form of cannibalism was an act of love and reverence.

On the other hand, the Wari’ also ate their war enemies. In this context, cannibalism was driven by strong hatred and anger. Eating the war dead was a way to express their dominance over their defeated adversaries.

Consuming the flesh of their foes symbolized their deep-seated animosity and anger towards these enemies. It was considered the ultimate act of humiliation, potentially allowing them to absorb the power or essence of their adversaries. Like other cultures on this list, the Wari’ practice of cannibalism began to disappear with the arrival of outsiders, particularly Christian missionaries.

Brazilian tribe members during a ritualistic performance. (Public domain)

Historic Cannibalism #8: Fijian Tribes Practiced Cannibalism Until the Mid-19th Century

Today, Fiji is known for its vibrant culture, stunning landscapes and warm hospitality. However, up until the mid-19th century, some Fijian tribes practiced cannibalism as part of their cultural and religious customs. This cannibalism was deeply tied to their social structure, warfare, and belief systems.

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In some Fijian tribes consuming the flesh of vanquished enemies was seen as a way to gain strength and power. The act of cannibalism served to demoralize opponents and assert dominance in a region where warfare was a recurring reality. Certain tribes and clans were more associated with this practice than others and cannibalism often involved ritualistic ceremonies that occurred after battles.

It’s important to stress however that not all Fijian tribes practiced cannibalism, and even for those that did it wasn’t an everyday occurrence. The arrival of European missionaries and colonial powers in the 19th century played a significant role in the decline of cannibalism in Fiji. With the influence of Western values and Christianity, the practice was gradually abandoned.

A re-enactment of a cannibalism during a feast in Fiji in 1869. (Public domain)

Cannibalism Through the Ages:

These days, the only times we really hear about cannibalism is either in horror films or the occasional news story. While it might be shocking to modern temperaments, cannibalism was an important part of many ancient cultures. Whether rooted in spiritual beliefs, survival, warfare or even the most extreme expressions of hatred, cannibalism offers a haunting glimpse into the varied facets of humanity's past. 

It’s important to remember not to judge these cultures too harshly. Western views on cannibalism can feel incredibly hypocritical when you remember that Europeans were eating mummies and drinking concoctions made of human blood well into the 18th century. It must also have been pretty confusing when Catholic missionaries told these tribes to stop practicing cannibalism and then turned around and introduced them to Mass, the Eucharist and the idea of transubstantiation.

Top image: Scene of cannibalism based on European accounts of expeditions to the Americas from America tertia pars by Theodor de Bry, circa 1592. Source: Public domain

By Robbie Mitchell