The discovery marks a significant breakthrough in understanding the architectural achievements of the Neo-Babylonian Empire during Nebuchadnezzar II's reign from 604 to 562 BC. According to research published in the journal Iraq, these foundation deposits represent the first written documentation of the king's restoration work on the ziggurat, adding another chapter to the legacy of Babylon's greatest builder.
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The Discovery of the Foundation Cylinders
The two clay cylinders came to light when local Iraqi residents handed them over to the State Board of Antiquities and Heritage in December 2013. The artifacts had been discovered on the surface of Tell Al-Uhaimir, the archaeological site containing the ruins of a ziggurat belonging to the ancient city of Kish, located approximately 15 kilometers (10 miles) east of Babylon in central Iraq. Phys.org reported that subsequent analysis revealed the cylinders to be typical of foundation documents from the Neo-Babylonian period.
Dr. Ahmed Ali Jawad, one of the study's authors, explained the significance of the deities mentioned in the inscriptions.
"Zababa is the god of war, his wife Ishtar is the goddess of war and love, most gods and their wives in ancient Mesopotamia were worshiped in the same temple," he noted
Ishtar was also venerated in Uruk as the city's principal goddess and honored throughout multiple Mesopotamian cities, demonstrating the widespread nature of her cult.
The cylinders themselves were crafted in the characteristic style of foundation documents commonly found during Nebuchadnezzar II's era. These inscribed clay cylinders served as time capsules, preserving for posterity the motivations, achievements, and religious devotion of ancient kings. The contents specifically relate to the restoration of the ziggurat dedicated to Zababa and Ishtar, sacred structures that connected heaven and earth in Mesopotamian cosmology.
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3D-Scan of cylinder Kz-2 (IM.227488). (Jawad and Al-Ammari 2025)
Nebuchadnezzar's Restoration Project
The inscriptions on both cylinders, which are nearly identical, provide detailed information about Nebuchadnezzar II's restoration campaign. The king introduces himself as the ruler of Babylon, appointed by the gods Marduk and Nabû to care for the great temples throughout his empire. The text describes how Nebuchadnezzar turned his attention to Kish's ziggurat, which had been constructed by an earlier king and restored by a subsequent ruler, though neither is mentioned by name.
According to Dr. Jawad, these unnamed monarchs may have been Samsu-iluna, who ruled from 1749 to 1712 BC, and Adad-apla-iddina, who reigned from 1064 to 1043 BC. "The old excavation revealed a royal inscription inside the ziggurat that belongs to these kings," Jawad explained. Archaeological evidence from previous excavations conducted by British archaeologist Ernst Mackay had indicated that the ziggurat underwent four major stages of construction and restoration, beginning with King Hammurabi around 1756 BC.
The cylinders reveal that by Nebuchadnezzar's time, the structure had fallen into severe disrepair. The king's inscription laments:
"The ziggurat of Kish, which a king of the past had built, but its walls had buckled, (and) a former king had restored (the damaged walls), and made its structure suitable, with the passage of time, it (again) became weak, (its walls) buckled, and shower(s) of rain carried away its brickwork."
This deterioration from both structural weakness and water damage motivated the restoration project.
The ziggurat of Kish ruins at Tell al-Uhaymir. (Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin FRCP(Glasg)/ CC BY-SA 4.0)
Divine Inspiration and Royal Ambition
Nebuchadnezzar II claimed divine inspiration for his restoration work, stating that the gods Zababa and Ishtar motivated him to undertake the project. After completing the renovations, he proclaimed: "I embellished its outward appearance and made (it shine) like the daylight for Zababa and Ishtar, my lords."
This emphasis on making the structure shine reflects the king's commitment to creating monuments that would glorify the gods and, by extension, his own reign.
The inscription concludes with a prayer for divine favor:
"O Zababa and Ishtar, look on account of this and, by your exalted command, may my days be long, may I attain very old age, may I conquer my enemies, (and) may I kill my opponents, with your fierce weapons, cut down (and) bind my enemies."
Such appeals for longevity, victory, and divine protection were standard in royal inscriptions throughout Mesopotamian history, reflecting the reciprocal relationship between kings and deities.
These cylinders provide crucial evidence that fills gaps in the archaeological record. While previous excavations at Kish had uncovered stamped bricks bearing Nebuchadnezzar's name, suggesting his involvement in construction activities, the cylinders offer the first comprehensive foundation text documenting the scope and motivation for his work. The discovery confirms the king's extensive building program extended beyond his famous projects in Babylon, including the Hanging Gardens and the Ishtar Gate.
Kish in Ancient Mesopotamian History
Kish held tremendous importance throughout Mesopotamian history. According to ancient tradition, the title "King of Kish" was among the most prestigious in the region, symbolizing supremacy over the entire land of Sumer and Akkad. The city was believed to be the first to receive kingship from the gods after the great flood, making it a site of immense religious and political significance.
The city's ziggurat served as the focal point for worship of Zababa, the patron deity of Kish, and his consort Ishtar. These monumental structures, characteristic of Mesopotamian religious architecture, functioned as artificial mountains connecting the earthly and divine realms. Priests would ascend the stepped platforms to perform rituals in the temple shrine at the summit, where the deity was believed to dwell.
Nebuchadnezzar II's decision to restore the ziggurat at Kish demonstrates his commitment to maintaining religious sites throughout his empire, not merely in the capital city of Babylon. This pattern of temple restoration and embellishment extended to numerous sacred sites, including temples at Uruk, Ur, Larsa, and Sippar, cementing his reputation as a pious ruler devoted to the traditional gods of Mesopotamia.
Top image: Left; Ruins of the ziggurat of the ancient city of Kish, Tell al-Uhaymir, Mesopotamia, Iraq. Right; Scan of cylinder Kz-2 (IM.227488). Source: Left; Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin FRCP(Glasg)/ CC BY-SA 4.0, Right; Jawad and Al-Ammari 2025
By Gary Manners
References
Jawad, A. A. et al. 2025. Two inscribed cylinders of Nebuchadnezzar II from the ziggurat of Kish. Available at: https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/32331A4DFD3DA7030A28EA859EBE2B04/core-reader
Oster, S. 2026. Ancient clay cylinders provide first foundation text documenting Nebuchadnezzar II's restoration of the ziggurat of Kish. Available at: https://phys.org/news/2026-01-ancient-clay-cylinders-foundation-text.html
