A groundbreaking archaeological study has revealed the first and only known instance of systematic human bone modification in Neolithic China, challenging our understanding of ancient Chinese mortuary practices. The discovery, published in Scientific Reports, presents evidence of an unprecedented cultural phenomenon from the sophisticated Liangzhu civilization that flourished 5,300 to 4,500 years ago.
Unprecedented Archaeological Evidence
Dr. Junmei Sawada and colleagues examined 183 human bones from archaeological sites in the Yangzi River Delta, identifying 52 specimens showing clear signs of deliberate modification. These worked bones, found scattered in canals and moats of Liangzhu urban centers, represent a stark departure from traditional Chinese burial customs that had persisted for millennia explains a Phys.org article.
The Liangzhu culture, named after the modern archaeological site near Hangzhou, represents one of China's earliest and most sophisticated urban societies. This ancient civilization constructed impressive water management systems, elaborate jade ceremonial objects, and monumental earthworks that demonstrate remarkable social organization and technological achievement.
Mask-like facial skull fragment showing characteristic splitting along coronal sutures. (Sawada et al. Nature Scientific Reports)
Remarkable Types of Bone Modifications
The research team identified six distinct categories of worked human bones, each revealing different aspects of this unique practice. Skull cups formed the most recognizable category, with bowl-shaped calvaria cut horizontally at eye level - artifacts that had previously been found as grave goods in elite Liangzhu burials. Mask-like facial skulls split along coronal sutures comprised another category, though their specific purpose remains enigmatic.
Small plate-shaped skull fragments represented the largest group, with 21 specimens showing crude shaping and evidence of being unfinished products. Perhaps most intriguing was a child's skull featuring two carefully polished posterior perforations, accompanied by linear abrasion marks across the cranial surface - a unique artifact with no known parallels in Chinese archaeology according to the report.
The study also documented mandibles with deliberately flattened bases and long limb bones modified at their ends, some showing evidence of utilitarian use as scraping or engraving tools. Remarkably, 80% of all worked bones appeared unfinished, suggesting either widespread technical failure or deliberate abandonment of the modification process.
Different types of worked limb bones showing various modification techniques. (Sawada et al. Nature Scientific Reports)
Evidence of Systematic Production
Analysis revealed that bone modification occurred primarily at the Zhongjiagang site, which served as Liangzhu's primary workshop area. The concentration of worked bones in this industrial zone, combined with standardized modification techniques, suggests organized production rather than random cultural practices. Dating analysis confirmed that most bone working occurred between 4,800 and 4,600 years ago, during the height of Liangzhu civilization's power and complexity.
Importantly, the bones showed no signs of violence, cut marks from dismemberment, or evidence of trauma that would suggest warfare or ritual killing. Instead, the evidence points to collection of bones after natural decomposition of soft tissues, indicating a fundamentally different relationship with human remains than found in other ancient cultures.
Revolutionary Social Implications
The researchers propose that this unprecedented bone modification practice reflects fundamental changes in social organization brought about by urbanization. Unlike earlier small-scale communities where all deceased individuals received formal burial and commemoration, Liangzhu's large urban population created social distances between individuals. This transformation may have led to a new category of "anonymous dead" - people outside immediate kinship networks who were not afforded traditional burial rites.
Dr. Sawada suggests that urbanization altered how the living viewed the dead, particularly those considered as "others" outside their social circles. The high proportion of unfinished worked bones indicates these remains were neither rare nor symbolically privileged materials, but rather readily available resources in a society where anonymous death had become commonplace. This represents a dramatic shift from the ancestor veneration practices documented in other contemporary cultures worldwide.
The discovery challenges traditional narratives about ancient Chinese attitudes toward death and the deceased, revealing how early urbanization could fundamentally transform cultural practices. As China's earliest state-level society, Liangzhu's approach to human remains may have established precedents that influenced later Chinese attitudes toward death and commemoration.
Top image: The main photograph shows a worked human skull with two precisely drilled perforations in the parietal bones, displaying the high level of craftsmanship achieved by Liangzhu bone workers. Source: Sawada et al. Nature Scientific Reports
By Gary Manners
References
Sawada, J. et al. 2025. Worked human bones and the rise of urban society in the neolithic Liangzhu culture, East Asia. Nature Scientific Reports. Available at: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-15673-7
