A new computational study suggests the Great Pyramid of Giza was built using a sophisticated "Integrated Edge-Ramp" (IER) system, potentially solving a 4,500-year-old architectural enigma. This model challenges traditional theories of massive external ramps or complex internal spirals, proposing instead a multi-channel system of ramps built directly into the edges of the pyramid itself - and the numbers, for the first time, actually add up.
For decades, the construction of Khufu's pyramid has presented a seemingly impossible logistical challenge. To complete the massive structure, comprising some 2.3 million blocks over a 230-meter base, within the pharaoh's roughly 27-year reign, ancient builders would have needed to place a block every few minutes. The new research, published in npj Heritage Science, utilizes a 3D computational framework to demonstrate how an adaptive, multi-ramp system could have sustained this blistering pace, producing a median on-site construction duration of 13.8 to 20.6 years, consistent with the historical record.
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Parametric 3-D reconstruction with four edge-integrated helical channels (one per face) using the baseline aperture. (Roig/Nature)
A Multi-Channel Construction Workflow
The IER model proposes a helical path formed by omitting and later backfilling perimeter courses at the edges of the pyramid. Vicente Luis Rosell Roig, the independent researcher behind the study, began sketching the idea in 2020 after watching a documentary about the pyramid and noticing inconsistencies in conventional explanations. He then moved from hand sketches to a full 3D programming environment, building a parametric model that simulates the construction process block by block.
Rosell Roig realized that replicating ramps on all four faces of the pyramid would transform a single, limiting pathway into a coordinated, parallel workflow. In the lower courses, where horizontal distribution across wide terraces dominated the workload, multiple ramps could be utilized simultaneously. As the structure rose and the workspace narrowed, the system could seamlessly adapt, adding or modifying ramps at minimal material cost. This approach is supported by archaeological evidence from the Hatnub quarries, where ancient Egyptians carved ramps directly into rock with postholes to distribute load, and from the Sinki pyramid, which features four simultaneous perpendicular ramps, one for each face.
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Granite block transfer across terraces. (Roig/CC BY 4.0)
Solving the Granite Challenge
One of the most significant hurdles in any Great Pyramid construction theory is explaining how the massive granite beams, weighing between 50 and 80 tons, were transported to the King's Chamber. The computational framework addresses this by proposing a terrace-to-terrace transport strategy using short ramps that could be dismantled and reused.
Short, reusable ramps could have been constructed on the expansive lower terraces to move these megaliths using wooden bollards for capstan control. The simulations indicate that the space on these terraces was ample enough to accommodate the specialized teams needed for the granite blocks without disrupting the continuous flow of the standard limestone blocks. Evidence from the Wadi al-Jarf papyri (the world's oldest known papyri) confirms that pyramid builders used the Nile and canals to transport materials, consistent with the 20–27 year construction window the model produces.
Face change with an edge-integrated haul corridor. (Roig/CC BY 4.0)
Alignment with ScanPyramids Discoveries
Perhaps the most compelling aspect of the IER model is its alignment with recent technological discoveries. The geometry of the proposed ramp paths corresponds intriguingly with anomalies detected by the ScanPyramids project, which used cosmic-ray muons to reveal hidden voids within the structure.
The model's predicted ramp slopes and corner turns align with reported cavities, notches, and the North Face Corridor. This suggests that the IER framework is not merely a theoretical exercise but a model capable of generating testable correspondences with empirical data from the monument itself. The intense wear observed at the pyramid's corners, particularly the southeast, could mark the entry points where the greatest flow of blocks occurred and the backfilled structure was most vulnerable.
A Scalable Tool for Heritage Science
The implications of this research extend well beyond the Great Pyramid. The computational framework developed by Rosell Roig is fully parametric, meaning it can be adapted to test construction theories for other ancient structures, including the Khafre, Menkaure, Red, and Bent pyramids. By simply adjusting input parameters such as slope, configuration, and location, other researchers can use the tool to validate different engineering hypotheses.
By sharing the code and datasets openly on Zenodo, the study provides a rigorous, testable tool for Egyptologists and engineers alike. It shifts the paradigm from speculative models to computational optimization, demonstrating that the ancient builders were master logisticians solving complex problems with the technology available to them. As Rosell Roig himself noted in the study's behind-the-paper blog post:
"The ancient builders were not just moving stones, they were solving a complex optimization problem."
Top image: Left; Construction algorithm image, Right; The Great Pyramid of Giza. Source: Left; Roig/CC BY 4.0, Right; Mike McBey/CC BY 2.0
By Gary Manners
References
Roig, V.L.R. 2026. A computational framework for evaluating an edge-integrated, multi-ramp construction model of the Great Pyramid of Giza. npj Heritage Science. Springer Nature. Available at: https://www.nature.com/articles/s40494-026-02405-x
Roig, V.L.R. 2026. The Pyramid Algorithm: Turning a 4,500-Year-Old Mystery into a Computational Problem. Available at: https://communities.springernature.com/posts/the-pyramid-algorithm-turning-a-4-500-year-old-mystery-into-a-computational-problem
