For over a century, a mysterious mummified head housed in Switzerland's Cantonal Museum of Archaeology and History has carried the wrong identity. What museum curators believed to be the remains of an ancient Inca ruler has now been definitively identified as belonging to the Aymara people of Bolivia's highlands. This remarkable case of mistaken identity, detailed in the International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, demonstrates how modern scientific techniques can rewrite historical narratives and restore dignity to indigenous remains.
The individual, catalogued as specimen Y-001, underwent extensive non-invasive analysis using CT scanning and historical research. Results revealed fascinating details about this ancient person's life and the colonial-era circumstances that brought his remains to Europe. The man died at least 350 years ago and bore the distinctive marks of Aymara cultural practices, including deliberate cranial modification performed during infancy and evidence of an attempted trepanation procedure.
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Cultural Practices Reveal True Aymara Origins
The research team, led by scientists from the Cantonal Museum of Archaeology and History in Lausanne, discovered that the skull exhibited "annular or circular" cranial deformation. This specific modification technique involved tightly binding an infant's head with cords or bandages to create an elongated, conical shape. According to archaeological evidence, this practice was particularly prevalent among the Tiwanaku civilization and later Aymara societies around Lake Titicaca, but was not practiced by the Inca during their imperial period.
The individual also displayed signs of an interrupted trepanation procedure on his right parietal bone. This ancient surgical practice involved drilling or scraping holes in the skull, possibly for medical or ritual purposes. Remarkably, the bone showed evidence of healing, indicating the person survived the incomplete procedure. The unusual irregular shape of the incision differs from typical circular or oval trepanations found elsewhere, raising intriguing questions about Aymara surgical techniques.
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Colonial Exploitation and Museum Ethics
The journey of these remains to Switzerland reveals a troubling chapter in colonial-era collecting practices. Swiss engineer Louis Kuffré acquired the mummified head in Bolivia during the late 19th century, when removing indigenous remains and artifacts for European institutions was commonplace. Historical records suggest the head was likely taken from a chullpa, one of the distinctive stone burial towers that dot the Bolivian highlands around Lake Titicaca.
Ancient chullpa burial towers at Sillustani, Peru, similar to those where the mummified head was likely discovered. (CC BY-SA 3.0)
These tower-like structures, built between 1000 AD and the Spanish conquest, served as above-ground mausoleums primarily reserved for high-status individuals within Aymara communities. The cold, dry environment of the Bolivian altiplano naturally mummified bodies placed within these towers, preserving them for centuries until colonial-era collectors arrived. The practice of looting such sites was widespread, with Western travelers showing little regard for the sacred nature of these indigenous burial places.
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Modern Science Restores Indigenous Identity
This case exemplifies the growing movement within museums worldwide to address the ethical implications of their colonial-era collections. The Lausanne museum's interdisciplinary approach, combining modern imaging techniques with historical research, represents a model for responsible provenance investigation. By using non-destructive methods, researchers were able to gather comprehensive information while preserving the integrity of the remains.
The study revealed additional details about the individual's health, including a dental abscess in the upper jaw that may have resulted from coca leaf chewing, a practice well-documented in Andean cultures. The combination of cranial modification, attempted trepanation, and burial context strongly indicates this person held significant status within their Aymara community before death claimed them over three and a half centuries ago.
Currently, the remains are stored in climate-controlled conditions and are not on public display. While no formal repatriation requests have been made, museum officials remain open to discussions with Aymara communities. This research demonstrates how scientific analysis can restore identity and cultural context to human remains that were once reduced to anonymous museum specimens, honoring the lives they represent while advancing our understanding of ancient Andean civilizations.
Top image: Right lateral view of the individual with cranial deformation. Source: C. Abegg et al./International Journal of Osteoarchaeology)
By Gary Manners
References
Abegg, C., Kammermann, S., Magnin, V., & Brizon, C. (2025). Anthropological, pathological, and historical analyses of a mummified cranium from Bolivia hosted in the museum of Cantonal Archaeology and history of Lausanne, Switzerland. Available at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/oa.70022
Archaeology Magazine Staff. (2025). 350-year-old mummified head in Switzerland traced to Bolivia's Aymara people after new study. Available at: https://archaeologymag.com/2025/09/350-year-old-mummified-head-in-switzerland/
