Greece is rightfully considered as one of the greatest ancient civilizations in global history. The birthplace of philosophy, democracy, sculpture, medicine, mathematics, and many other revolutionary concepts, Greece was truly the major global power in its heyday. But, as they say, there is always a “bigger fish”, and even the greatest of empires and civilizations have to fall at some point. Greece’s bigger fish was its closest neighbor, the rapidly ascending Roman Republic. The series of conflicts against the Greeks, and their ultimate conquest were the major changes in the history of the ancient world and paved the way for the later fate of the Roman Empire. And, in many ways, these events shaped the face of a new and altogether different Europe. But how was subjugated Greece transformed? What resulted from the fusion of Roman and Greek cultures?
In Front of the Roman Machine: Conquest of Greece
By the time the Roman Republic rose to prominence, Ancient Greece was no longer the main “player” in Europe, in the political sense. Rome, rapidly ascending to a powerful and expansive republic, was like a wildfire - it spread all across the continent and subdued many of its weaker neighbors. By the mid-2nd century BC, it was by far the most dominant power in the Mediterranean. And, its next target was Greece, from whom Rome itself gained many cultural and religious elements.
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For centuries before the conquest of Greece, the Romans admired and copied their neighbors. They deeply admired the famed Greek art, their philosophy, and literature, all of which highly influenced Roman culture. But even though the Romans admired the Greeks, they did not hesitate to eventually conquer them. Their insatiable need for territorial expansion was far stronger than mere admiration. Of course, the conquest of Greece did not happen overnight, but was a rather long process. It was the culmination of a series of conflicts between the Roman Republic and the many smaller Greek city-states.
The Sack of Corinth by Thomas Allam, ca. 1870. (Public Domain)
The decisive moment in these lengthy conflicts came in 146 BC, when the famed Roman general Lucius Mummius Achaicus defeated the Greek Achaean League at the Battle of Corinth. This was a major Greek city-state, which was thoroughly sacked after the battle. This act marked the end of free Greece and placed it firmly into the hands of the Romans. In the end, even though Greek autonomy was heavily curtailed, the arrival of the Romans still brought a degree of stability into Greece, but plenty of exploitation as well.
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Administering an Ancient Realm
With the arrival of the Romans and their disciplined administration, Greece received a new form of governance. First notable change was its division into several provinces, which included Macedonia, Epirus, Thrace, and Achaea. Each one of these provinces was governed by a Roman proconsul, or governor. These governors reported directly to the Roman senate (and later to the Roman Emperor), depending on the political climate in Rome. Of course, this form of governance was quite efficient, and was something for which the Romans were well known. What is more, this form of provincial administration was structured in such a way that made it easy to extract taxes (a foremost aspect of Roman wealth), to facilitate trade, and to maintain order in an occupied state.
And, since Greece was never really unified into a singular state but was rather traditionally separated into several city-states that shared the same nationality, it meant that it was often disorganized. Rome’s occupation, however, brought a great degree of stability into Greece. The famed Pax Romana (Roman Peace), allowed for much safer travel across Europe (Roman territories), and much better trade prospects for the Greeks. Alas, the Greeks were not the first interest of Rome, as was only natural. Instead, Roman governors often prioritized the interest of Rome, which sometimes led to economic strain on local populations, especially when the taxes were levied heavily. Greek nobles and elites often had to navigate complex relations with the authorities of Rome, in order to maintain their status and influence.
The Two Giants of Europe, Together
A notable aspect of the Roman era in Greece was the endless stream of cultural exchange between these venerable civilizations. And even though Greece was politically subjugated, its cultural and intellectual traditions continued to profoundly influence Roman society. Wealthy and noble Romans adopted Greek art, philosophy, and architecture, and often employed Greek tutors for their own children. In time, works of noted Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, became the cornerstones of Roman education.
But the cultural exchange was twofold. The Romans also influenced the Greeks, and left their mark on their cultural evolution. Notably, it was the Roman architectural styles that were becoming prominent in chief cities of Greece. These included amphitheaters, aqueducts, lavish baths, and similar. In fact, many pre-existing Greek public spaces and structures were remodeled with new, Roman features. In today’s archaeological remains from Ancient Greece, we can spot many distinctly Roman features. And on top of all that, the pre-existing customs of Greece were quickly blended with Roman law and administrative practices which were quickly introduced.
Still, the “phenomenon” of Hellenization, or the spread of Greek culture, continued even under Roman rule. Many of the noted emperors of Rome, such as Hadrian, Augustus, and Marcus Aurelius, celebrated Greek culture and heritage. Hadrian was especially fond of Greece and was its great admirer. He sponsored numerous building projects, and constructed the famous Temple of Olympian Zeus in Athens. He also established the Panhellenion, which was a league of Greek cities aimed at reviving Greek cultural pride.
The Olympiaion was a temple dedicated to Zeus that was started in 515 BC. But which was only completed in Roman times under Emperor Hadrian in 131. (Jean-Pierre Dalbéra from Paris, France/CC BY 2.0)
The New Fate of Greece
Like all conquests, this one also brought profound changes into Greece. Its integration into the broader Roman Empire, which functioned like a well-oiled machine, brought major economic changes. For one, Greece became a key aspect of the exemplary Roman trade network, which spanned much of the known world of the time. From Greece, products like wine, marble, olives, and olive oil were exported in great quantities. Many Greek cities, such as Corinth, Thessalonica, and Athens, flourished as they became major commercial hubs.
Ancient Agora of Athens, a major commercial center hub of ancient Athens. (Sharon Mollerus/CC BY 2.0)
But not everyone enjoyed these sudden economic benefits, as they were very much unevenly distributed. Under Roman patronage, wealthy Greek elites often prospered, but the people living in rural areas saw none of that prosperity, and instead lived their lives burdened by heavy taxation and numerous economic hardships. To make matters worse, slavery was not abolished with the arrival of the Romans, but was instead only made even more important. Many Greek slaves were taken to Rome, far from their homes, or were employed in large estates in Greece, where work was always plentiful.
From all this, it becomes clear that Greece was a very lucrative prize for Rome, from the get-go. It was a true bread basket, a land of many resources that were a very lucrative prize in Roman eyes. And this exploitation of Greek resources also extended to art and treasures. Many Greek artifacts were transported to Rome, enriching its cultural landscape but depleting Greece’s cultural heritage. This looting - for that’s what it was - combined with the financial burden of Roman taxes, placed considerable strain on Greek society.
The Transformation of a Major Religion
Religious practices in Greece underwent significant transformation during the Roman era. The traditional Greek pantheon remained central to religious life, but Roman deities and imperial cults were gradually introduced. The practice of emperor worship became widespread, beginning with Augustus, with major Greek cities constructing temples and altars dedicated to many Roman emperors. This was both a political gesture of loyalty and a reflection of the blending of religious traditions.
Of course, the Roman era also witnessed the emergence and spread of Christianity. By the 1st century AD, the Roman-occupied world was quickly changing, and the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth began to spread all across the empire, Greece included. Apostles such as Paul played a pivotal role in establishing Christian communities in cities like Corinth, Thessalonica, and Philippi. The Epistles of Paul, many of which were addressed to Greek congregations, highlight the early interactions between Christianity and Greek culture. Notable examples are the First and Second Epistle to the Corinthians, the Epistle to the Ephesians, and many others. Even today, these are the cornerstones of Christian teachings.
The Second Epistle to the Corinthians. (Public Domain)
Despite initial resistance and persecution, Christianity gradually gained followers and institutional support throughout the empire. By the late Roman period, particularly under Emperor Constantine, Christianity was so widespread that it began to eclipse traditional pagan religions and beliefs, setting the stage for Greece’s transformation into a predominantly Christian society in the Byzantine era. It would later emerge as one of the bastions of Christianity in Europe, and would remain fundamentally orthodox in the aftermath of the Great Schism.
The Cultural Epicenter
For centuries before the rise of Rome, Greece was well known and admired as Europe’s center of cultural development. And this very much remained the case, even with the arrival of the Romans. Their nationwide occupation did not diminish Greece’s established role as an intellectual and cultural center. For example, the city of Athens remained the undisputed “hub” of learning and scholarly pursuits. It attracted many students from all across the Roman world. In many ways, the Roman occupation allowed citizens from distant parts of Europe, such as Iberia, Britain, or Gaul, to travel to Athens and receive a high quality education. Similarly, the famed philosophical schools such as the Academy (Plato’s Akademia) and the Lyceum continued to operate as before. However, they were gradually adapted to Roman patronage and interests.
And even under the shadow of Roman rule, Greek writers, philosophers, architects, and artists continued to produce major influential works that resonated not only through Greece, but through the Roman world and subsequent European traditions. The synthesis of Greek and Roman artistic styles is evident in sculptures, mosaics, and public buildings from this period. The blending of Greek creativity with Roman engineering resulted in enduring architectural achievements, many of which are well known even today, centuries later.
A Hellenistic Greek encaustic painting on a marble tombstone depicting the portrait of a young man named Theodoros, dated 1st century BC during the period of Roman Greece, Archaeological Museum of Thebes. (Public Domain)
The Changing Face of the World
Nevertheless, the authority of Rome could not endure in Greece indefinitely. History has its ways, and it is never in one place for too long. It shifts and shuffles, and changes repeatedly. And so, as the eras changed, Rome gradually lost its authority in Greece, beginning in the 3rd century AD. Gripped with the tumultuous Crisis of the Third Century, Rome had its control weakened by increased military pressures, economic instability, and political fragmentation. The entire Empire was brought to the brink of collapse, and Greece was impacted by this as well. Faced by repeated invasions by “barbarian” tribes such as the Germanic Goths and Heruli, Greece suffered, seeing its chief cities sacked, like Athens which was ravaged in 267 AD and shrunk to a portion of its former size.
But even so, the Roman Era in Greece was a complex period. It was marked by a paradox of cultural flourishing and subjugation. Greece lost its independence and was conquered, but even in such a state it managed to profoundly influence Roman civilization. And that fact alone is testament to the enduring Greek influence, their pioneering role in art, architecture, and science, and their position as one of the earliest complex civilizations in the world.
Top image: AI image of ancient ruins illuminated by the golden evening sun, showcasing classical Greco-Roman architecture of Greece in the Roman era. Source: Steven/Adobe Stock
References
Freeman, C. 2004. Egypt, Greece, and Rome: Civilizations of the Ancient Mediterranean. Oxford University Press.
Smith, W. 2023. A Smaller History of Greece: from the Earliest Times to the Roman Conquest: An Insightful Journey Through Ancient Greek Civilization. Good Press.
Waterfield, R. 2014. Taken at the Flood: The Roman Conquest of Greece. Oxford University Press.
