The rich scribal tradition of ancient Egypt was one of the foremost pillars of the development of that culture. At a time when much of the world could not read or write; these resourceful and erudite peoples wrote poetry, compiled the wisdom of the ages, designed grandiose monuments, and conducted robust diplomatic relations with kings in the Near East - all thanks to their love for, and command over the written word, which they referred to as Netjer Medu (Divine Writing). It is due in no small measure to the fact that they chronicled all aspects of their lives, royalty and commoner alike, that we know more about the Egyptians today than any other ancient civilization.
The hieroglyph used to signify the scribe, to write, and "writings", etc., is an Alan Gardiner sign from the category of 'writings, & music'. It contains the scribe's ink-mixing palette, a vertical case to hold writing-reeds, and a leather pouch to hold the black and red ink blocks. Close-up of a writing palette, Ramesses II temple, Abydos. Petra Lether.
Language of the Gods
For millennia, the strange writings on the walls of the magnificent temple and tomb walls in Egypt had befuddled observers; but all that changed in July 1799 when a young engineering officer, Pierre-François-Xavier Bouchard, made one of the most incredible finds in Egyptological, and indeed, world history: the Rosetta Stone. This large black granodiorite stele that was discovered at Fort Rashid in the Delta paved the way to unlock the mysterious hieroglyphics in 1822 - thanks to the singular diligence of the French scholar, Jean-Francois Champollion.
One of the earliest writing systems known to humankind, Egypt flourished due to its development and use of hieroglyphic, hieratic, and later, demotic scripts. Scribes were greatly esteemed in society as men who possessed godly wisdom, and their utterances were respected. In turn, these scribes ensured that they conducted their affairs with integrity, discipline and dedication, which ensured justice for everyone in the land and brought glory to the gods and Pharaoh. At least, that was the ideal that they collectively aspired to. Be they exquisite coffins, towering statues or grand temple walls; from simple ostraca to immense works of a religious, astronomical, medical, literary, economic and administrative nature - scribes in Egypt left their indelible mark in every conceivable sphere.
Seated bronze statuette of Imhotep (‘the one who comes in peace’); chancellor to the pharaoh Djoser, priest of Ra and architect. Egyptologists ascribe to him the design of the Step Pyramid at Saqqara. Outside the Egyptological community, he is referred to as a polymath, poet, judge, engineer, magician, scribe, astronomer, astrologer, and especially a physician. He later achieved the status of a deity and was identified with the Greek god Asklepios. (Public Domain)
Sacred writings of the ancient Egyptians consisted of a wealth of symbols that were organized in a mind-boggling array of combinations. But this was no meaningless or haphazard expression, for, each and every brilliantly colored pictorial depiction related to the highly abstract and spiritual relation between God and humankind. Netjer Medu was therefore a manifestation of both divine and temporal powers, right here on earth. Through their portrayal of bird and animal deities, heavenly beings, human anatomy and symbols of kingship; the ancients sought to replicate the magical realm of the Cosmos - and thereby, delve into and understand the deeper meanings of life.
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“The Egyptians, by selecting 24 hieroglyphs for 24 different consonant sounds and adding others to represent clusters of consonants, approached an alphabet; but, lacking vowels, they never took the final step to alphabetical writing. Instead, they mingled the hieroglyphs that stood for sounds with the others that stood for ideas,” explains Lionel Casson.
Limestone statue of Si-Hathor, a scribe. This statuette combines the seated image of the deceased with the base where the inscription would normally be carved. Here, the artist carved the offering prayer directly onto Si-Hathor’s garment, a solution that saved on the amount of stone to be purchased. Late 12th Dynasty to early 13th Dynasty. Brooklyn Museum.
Oh, to be a Scribe!
The demands placed on a scribe were such that not everybody contemplated entering the profession. Even if one aspired to join the ranks of scribe-hood, it would have been well-nigh impossible due to social restrictions and economic considerations. Most often it was the sons of scribes who followed in their fathers’ footsteps. It was extremely rare for craftsmen to send their sons to school, though some did. Moreover, an overwhelming majority of scribes in ancient Egypt were men.
“Throughout ancient Egyptian history, literacy was reserved for a tiny elite at the heart of government. To be a scribe - to be able to read and write - was to have access to the levers of power. That association was evidently formed at the very start,” informs Toby Wilkinson. It was no mean task to become a scribe, for the aspirant had to undergo rigorous training in schools. However, eyebrows weren’t raised when corporal punishment was meted out; for people were accustomed to it from childhood. Scribe Amenemope certainly followed this course in letter and spirit when dealing with his young charges; for he states matter-of-factly: "A boy's ears are upon his back. He only listens when he is being beaten."
This Ebony papyrus burnisher is inscribed with the name and title of the scribe Merymaat. It was found with a scarab inscribed with the cartouche of Thutmose III, and with the pieces of a gaming board. 18th Dynasty. Abydos, Cemetery D, Tomb D99. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
Once the young princes and their schoolmates had mastered the Egyptian language, they were introduced to Babylonian cuneiform, the diplomatic lingua franca of the age. Egypt could no longer afford to luxuriate in its own sense of superiority. In a new era of internationalism, power politics demanded a knowledge of foreign languages and cultures. The curriculum also included mathematics and music, for an appreciation of singing and instrumental music, if not the ability to perform, went hand in hand with membership in polite society.
“The discipline of the scribal school was meant to prepare its pupils for the rigors of government service. The harsh and uncompromising style of education accurately reflected the exercise of power in ancient Egypt. The royal court, despite its luxury, was no place for effete intellectuals. Ambition, determination, resilience, and manly vigor - these were the qualities prized by the government machine, and the nursery sought to drum them into its pupils,” writes Wilkinson.
Glories of the Fine Profession
Just as important, for the future king if not for his classmates, was a firm grasp
of military strategy. The future Amenhotep II would no doubt have studied the accounts of classic engagements (including, perhaps, his father’s great victory at the Battle of Megiddo) alongside the literary, mathematical, and musical papyri.
It is clear from the awkwardly formed hieroglyphs and their uneven spacing that this is the work of an apprentice scribe who was practicing his penmanship. The wooden writing board could be used again and again by scraping or wiping off the ink and adding a new coat of whitewash. First Intermediate Period (11th Dynasty or earlier). Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
At these schools, children were taught to read and write hieroglyphic and hieratic scripts; and also the demotic script from the second-half of the first millennium BC (which was primarily used as shorthand and for commerce) and arithmetic. Since there were hundreds of signs that the youngster was required to master through a process of trial and error, out came the equivalents of our modern-day slate and blackboard - pieces of pottery, flakes of limestone, wooden boards, and of course, papyrus sheets were employed for this purpose. Scribes usually wrote on papyrus with reed brushes dipped in ink. The ancient Egyptians made ink by grinding brightly colored minerals into powder, then mixing the powder with liquid so that it was easier to apply.
Scribe’s wooden exercise tablet with hieratic text. This text is an excerpt from the Instructions of Amenemhat. 18th Dynasty, reign of Amenhotep I. It reads: “Be on your guard against all who are subordinate to you... Trust no brother, know no friend, make no intimates.” (Public Domain)
As they progressed, pupils moved on to the study of longer, classic texts, such as the Middle Kingdom Tale of Sinuhe and - a particular favorite - the work known as Kemit, ‘the compendium’. Kemit was a model letter, used as a set text for scribal training, and it was intended to hone its readers’ morals as much as their writing skills. By emphasizing the advantages of literacy, it sought to perpetuate the elevated status enjoyed by the elite:
‘As for any scribe in any position at court,
he shall not be poor in it.’
A kindred text, Satire of the Trades, developed this theme, denigrating every other occupation while eulogizing the work of the scribe. Making the pupils learn such texts by rote was a mild form of brainwashing. Yet these idealizing sentiments shy away from the harsh reality of the school environment:
‘Look, there is no job without a controller
except that of the scribe: he is the controller.
So if you are literate, it will be good for you,
unlike these [other] jobs I have shown you…
Most beneficial for you is a day in the schoolroom.’
Esteem and Great Honor
Scribes were considered a part of the royal court and were therefore not conscripted into the army, nor did they have to pay taxes. The scribal occupation complemented the functions of several professions, including the bureaucracy. Its main connection, however, was with the multitude of architects, painters, and artisans who built and decorated monuments across the country. A scribe was exempt from the heavy manual labor required of the lower classes, or corvee labor.
This statuette depicts a kneeling man holding a stela inscribed with a hymn to the sun. An inscription on the back of the statuette identifies the man as Bay, who was a scribe working in the administration of the temple of Seti I, a post he probably held into the reign of Seti’s son, Ramesses II. Complete statues of non-royal individuals from this period are uncommon, and pieces of this fine quality are extremely rare. 19th Dynasty. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
Thoth, with his cult center at Khemenu (Hermopolis Magna during the Greco-Roman era) was the god credited with the invention of writing by the ancient Egyptians. In art, he was often depicted as a man with the head of an ibis or a baboon, animals sacred to him. His feminine counterpart was Seshat, and his wife was Ma’at, the goddess of truth and cosmic order. Thoth was the scribe of the gods who held knowledge of scientific and moral laws. Besides accountancy and governmental politicking, the scribal professions branched out into literature. The first stories were probably creation stories and religious texts, but other genres were evolving, such as wisdom literature, collections of the philosophical sayings of wise men, which contain the earliest recordings of societal thought and exploration of ideas in some length and detail.
In the Papyrus of Ani copy of the Book of the Dead, the scribe proclaims: “I am thy writing palette, O Thoth, and I have brought unto thee thine ink-jar. I am not of those who work iniquity in their secret places; let not evil happen unto me.” Also, legend has it that Chapter XXXb of the Book of the Dead (Wallis Budge translation) is believed to have been penned by Thoth himself.
Scribe Nebmerutef is portrayed under the attentive gaze of the god Thoth, patron of writing. He is engrossed in reading a document, seated cross-legged on the ground, with his torso leaning slightly forward, and his right hand resting on the papyrus. Above him, the baboon sacred to Thoth is seated on a pedestal. New Kingdom. Louvre Museum, Paris.
Soldier vs Scribe
A scribe in the New Kingdom exhorted people to follow suit, instead of becoming a soldier. He eloquently lists the perils of choosing the latter profession: “Set your sight on being a scribe; a fine profession that suits you. You call for one; a thousand answer you. Let me tell you the woes of the soldier: he is awakened at any hour; he toils until the sun sets; he is hungry; his belly hurts; he is dead while yet alive. When he receives the grain ration, having been released from duty, it is no good for grinding. When he is called up for Syria, he may not rest and there are no clothes or sandals.
His march is uphill through mountains. He drinks water every third day; it is smelly and tastes of salt and his body is ravaged by illness. He is told, ‘Quick! forward, valiant soldier! Win for yourself a good name.’ When victory is won, the captives are handed over to His Majesty to be taken to Egypt.
The foreign woman faints on the march; she hangs herself on the soldier’s neck. His knapsack drops; another grabs it while he is burdened with the woman. His wife and children are in their village; he dies and does not reach it. But if he does come out alive, he is worn out from marching.
Be a scribe and be spared from soldiering!”
More upcoming in Part II, an Ancient Origins Premium series by independent researcher and playwright Anand Balaji, author of Sands of Amarna: End of Akhenaten.
[The author thanks Petra Lether, Merja Attia and Margaret Patterson for granting permission to use their photographs. The public archives of the Metropolitan Museum of Art can be accessed here.]
Top Image: On the Southern Part of the East Wall of Horemheb’s Saqqaran tomb, military scribes, magnificently represented, scrupulously record the details of long files of prisoners escorted by Egyptian soldiers (not in pic). This depiction is often speculated to represent women scribes. (Image: Merja Attia)
By Anand Balaji
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