The utilization of animals in ancient warfare is a fascinating subject that underscores the ingenuity and adaptability of early civilizations in our past. Throughout history, animals have been indispensable allies in battles, offering strength, speed, and unique tactical advantages that often determined the outcomes of major conflicts. From the war elephants of the Indian subcontinent to the cavalry horses of the Mongol Empire, animals have shaped the strategies, logistics, and overall conduct of warfare. And they also show how man always rose to be at the top of the evolutionary tree - finding use for virtually every animal around him.
Horses: The Backbone of Ancient Cavalry
Horses were perhaps the most influential animals in ancient warfare, revolutionizing combat with the advent of cavalry. Their speed and agility allowed for rapid movement across battlefields, facilitating flanking maneuvers, surprise attacks, and quick retreats. The use of horses in warfare dates to the domestication of the horse around 3500 BC on the steppes of Central Asia. By the time of the ancient Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations, horses were integral to chariotry, providing a platform for archers and spearmen. The war chariot was a true revolution in ancient warfare, providing speed, maneuverability, and lethal accuracy. It is also likely that horse breeding appeared around this time as well, ensuring that only the fittest and strongest horses would be used for war.
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The Scythians, a nomadic people from the Eurasian steppes, were among the first to develop effective mounted warfare tactics around the 9th century BC. Their ability to fight on horseback with composite bows gave them a significant advantage over infantry-based armies. Similarly, the Parthians and later the Persians refined cavalry tactics, including the famous "Parthian shot," a technique where mounted archers would feign retreat and then turn to shoot at pursuing enemies. Mounted combat proved to be devastatingly effective, even more so than chariotry. Throughout history, peoples such as Scythians, Huns, and Mongols, proved to be powerful enemies, placing entire empires at risk. This was due to their ability to move swiftly across great distances, bring vast herds of horses with them, and to overpower traditional foot armies with their speed and precision.
Carved relief of Ramesses II during the Battle of Kadesh at Abu Simbel. (Diego Delso / CC BY-SA 4.0)
In Europe, the Greeks and Romans initially used horses primarily for chariots but eventually adopted and perfected cavalry units. Alexander the Great's elite Companion Cavalry (hetairoi) was a formidable force, instrumental in his conquests across Asia. Many historians consider them the world’s first shock troops, akin to an ancient “blitzkrieg” force. These mounted warriors were instrumental for Alexander’s swift conquests across the world. The Romans as well, known for their adaptability, incorporated cavalry units called "alae" into their legions, enhancing their flexibility and reach on the battlefield. Beside the classic Roman soldier, these horsemen were the backbone of Roman expansion.
Elephants: Living Tanks of the Ancient World
Massive war elephants were another significant military innovation, particularly in South Asia, North Africa, and parts of the Hellenistic world. These colossal animals were used to instill terror, trample enemy soldiers, and break through defensive lines. The earliest recorded use of war elephants dates back to the Indian subcontinent around the 4th century BC, where they played a crucial role in the armies of the Magadha and Nanda Empires. From there, their use spread into the Classical world as well, where even a few war elephants could turn the tide of a major battle. In many ways, they could be considered the tanks of the ancient world, and merely seeing them enter the battlefield was enough to send brave men fleeing in panic.
"Elephants, when tamed, are employed in war, and carry into the ranks of the enemy towers filled with armed men; and on them, in a very great measure, depends the ultimate result of the battles that are fought in the East. They tread under foot whole companies, and crush the men in their armor."
Pliny, Natural History (VIII.ix.27)
The most famous use of war elephants in Western history is attributed to the Carthaginian general Hannibal during the Second Punic War (218-201 BC). Hannibal famously crossed the Alps with his elephants to launch a surprise attack on Rome. Although the journey took a heavy toll on the animals, those that survived had a profound psychological impact on the Roman troops. Hannibal himself rode on an elephant, his personal favorite, whom he named Surus. It was said to be a formidable creature of war, with one tusk broken in half.
Hannibal crossing the Alps. Nicolas Poussin c. 1625-1626. (Public Domain)
In the Hellenistic period, after Alexander the Great's conquest of Persia, his successors, the Diadochi, adopted war elephants into their armies. The Seleucid Empire, in particular, maintained large contingents of elephants, using them effectively in battles such as Ipsus in 301 BC.
However, war elephants required significant resources for their upkeep and training. They were typically equipped with armor and carried mahouts (drivers) and sometimes even small turrets or howdahs for archers and spearmen. Despite their advantages, elephants could be unpredictable in battle and were susceptible to panic, which could turn them into a liability if they stampeded back through friendly lines. Because of this, their use waned in time.
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Camels: The Ships of the Desert
Camels were essential for warfare in arid and desert regions, particularly in the Middle East and North Africa. Their ability to thrive in these harsh conditions and to traverse vast stretches of desert without water made them invaluable for both transportation and combat in these arid environments. The Arabian camel, or dromedary, with its single hump, was particularly suited for such conditions. The Persian Empire utilized camels extensively, especially in their wars against the Greeks. Herodotus recounts the use of camels by the Persian King Cyrus the Great in the Battle of Thymbra (547 BC), where he positioned them against the Lydian cavalry, whose horses were unaccustomed to the sight and smell of camels, causing them to panic.
The Arabian tribes, including the Nabataeans, were renowned for their camel-mounted warriors. These warriors excelled in desert skirmishes and hit-and-run tactics, using the camel's speed and endurance to outmaneuver their opponents. The camel corps became a crucial component of Islamic military campaigns during the rapid expansion of the Caliphates in the 7th and 8th centuries AD These were nimble, relatively obedient animals with ample height and agility for use in war. When properly trained, they were an effective “vehicle” for a skilled mounted warrior, who could be both a lancer and an archer.
So effective were war camels that they were used even in recent times. The Ottomans still utilized their camel troops in the First World War, and across the Middle East warriors on camels were still active in the 20th century conflicts.
Arabic camels in Syria. (James Gordon / CC BY-SA 2.0)
Dogs: Loyal Companions and Fierce Fighters
Man’s best friends, dogs have been used in warfare for millennia, valued for their loyalty, acute senses, and combat capabilities. The earliest evidence of war dogs comes from ancient Egypt, where depictions show them being used in hunting and military contexts as early as 2500 BC. The Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans all employed war dogs in various roles, including sentries, scouts, and combatants.
The Molossian breed, native to Epirus in ancient Greece, was particularly prized for its size, strength, and ferocity. These dogs were often used to break enemy lines, attack individual soldiers, and protect camps. In Roman times, war dogs, known as "Canes Pugnaces," were equipped with spiked collars and armor, and they often accompanied legions into battle. A great number of fierce dogs could be let all at once at an enemy - the sight of them charging was certainly frightening and could break enemy formations.
In the medieval period, war dogs continued to be used in Europe. The Spanish conquistadors, for instance, brought armored Mastiffs and other large breeds to the New World, where they were used to intimidate and subdue indigenous populations. In modern times too, dogs continue to be used in warfare, in various ways. Thanks to their powerful scents, dogs can be used to discover explosives and mines, to guard prisoners, and can be used in scouting too. They found widespread use in the World Wars, many gaining recognition.
Pigeons and Cattle: Equally Important
Pigeons played a crucial role in ancient communication networks, particularly in times of war. Their homing ability made them ideal for carrying messages across long distances. The use of pigeons for communication dates to ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt, where they were used to relay messages between distant cities. During the Roman Empire, pigeons were used to send messages across their vast territories, providing a reliable means of communication in the absence of more advanced technology. This method of communication continued into the medieval period and beyond, with pigeons being used extensively during both World Wars for their reliability in delivering messages across enemy lines and in difficult terrains.
Cattle and other livestock were likewise vital to ancient armies for both sustenance and strategic purposes. Armies on the move required substantial supplies of food, and livestock provided a mobile food source that could be slaughtered as needed. Additionally, cattle were sometimes used to transport goods and equipment, especially in regions where other forms of transport were impractical. In some cases, cattle were used in more direct military applications. The Romans, for instance, occasionally employed cattle in siege warfare. During the Siege of Alesia in 52 BC, Julius Caesar's forces used cattle to transport supplies and to create a diversion for their besieged enemies.
Exotic Animals: Psychological Warfare and Spectacle
Beyond the more commonly used animals, exotic creatures were sometimes employed for psychological impact or spectacle in warfare. The ancient Egyptians, for instance, are believed to have used trained baboons in military contexts, capitalizing on their aggressive nature and ability to intimidate enemies. In Roman times, the use of exotic animals was often associated with public spectacles and gladiatorial games, but there are accounts of exotic animals being used in military parades and as part of psychological warfare. For example, the Emperor Trajan's conquest of Dacia (101-106 AD) was celebrated with a grand triumph in Rome that featured exotic animals from the conquered territories, symbolizing Rome's dominance over foreign lands.
Logistics and Veterinary Care in Ancient Armies
The effective use of animals in warfare required sophisticated logistical planning and veterinary care. Ancient military campaigns often involved large numbers of animals, necessitating careful management of food, water, and medical care to maintain their effectiveness. The Romans, known for their organizational prowess, established veterinary services within their legions to care for horses, mules, and other animals. These veterinarians, known as "medici veterinarii," were responsible for treating injuries, managing disease outbreaks, and ensuring the overall health of the animals. Detailed records from Roman military sites reveal the extensive care given to animals, including dietary regimens, shelter, and medical treatments.
Similarly, in the Indian subcontinent, the maintenance of war elephants was a highly specialized field. Treatises like the "Matanga Lila" and "Hastyayurveda" provide detailed insights into the care, training, and management of elephants, highlighting the importance placed on these animals in ancient Indian warfare.
Man’s Best Friends or Instruments of War?
The role of animals in ancient warfare was multifaceted and essential, influencing the strategies, outcomes, and even the logistics of military campaigns. From the swift cavalry horses of the steppes to the towering war elephants of India, and from the loyal war dogs of Greece and Rome to the desert-traversing camels of the Middle East, animals provided unparalleled advantages in battle. Their contributions went beyond mere utility; they shaped the tactics and strategies of armies, instilled fear, and awe in adversaries, and symbolized the might and ingenuity of the civilizations that harnessed their power.
Understanding the historical use of animals in warfare offers valuable insights into the broader context of human-animal relationships and the evolution of military technology. The legacy of these animals continues to be felt today, as modern military forces draw upon ancient lessons in the use of animals for various purposes, from bomb detection to transport in challenging terrains. The story of animals in ancient warfare is a testament to the enduring bond between humans and animals and their combined capacity to influence the course of history. The only question is: who suffered in the end?
Top image: AI image of Roman military with war elephants. Source: Rajko / Adobe Stock
By Aleksa Vu?kovi?
References
Emlen, D. J. 2015. Animal Weapons: The Evolution of Battle. Picador.
Hediger, R. 2012. Animals and War: Studies of Europe and North America. BRILL.
Henshaw, D. 1989. Animal Warfare. Fontana.
