As Christianity triumphed in country after country in its march across Europe in the first millennium, the Nordic countries remained resistant to its allure. Christianity did eventually take over in Scandinavia, but up until just a little over 1,000 years ago, during the Viking Age, the old Norse gods continued to reign supreme. The stigma attached to paganism elsewhere took a long time to take root in the Norse region, which reveals how important that worldview was for the ancient Viking culture and its forerunners.
Norway was among the very last countries to convert to Christianity, and that makes it an ideal case study for gaining a greater understanding of the pagan worldview as it existed at the end of the first millennium, on the eve of its disappearance. This is the argument of University of Oslo professor Mikael Males, who specializes in the study of Old Norse philology (the ancient language and is true meaning).
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Paganism in the Words of the Pagans
Outside the Roman Empire and ancient Greece, the only place we find extensive texts written in the words of pagans themselves is in the Nordic religion, Males points out.
"Norway and the Nordic countries have a pagan heritage to be somewhat proud of. A heritage that few have been aware of," Males said in an interview with Science Norway.
Painting by Cesare Viazzi for ‘Ride of the Valkyries,’ music by Richard Wagner for his opera Die Walküre that explores themes from Norse mythology. (Public Domain).
Many people’s ideas about paganism in the Norse world come from the works of the famed chronicler Snorri Sturluson, the 13th century Icelandic historian and poet. But Males notes that Sturluson studied at a Catholic school, and his Christian perspective impacted the way he interpreted past pagan beliefs.
Thankfully, old texts still exist that relate the truth about the pagan philosophy and spiritual outlook in the words of those who lived and breathed it on a daily basis.
"This Norse poetry has been preserved in a more unaltered form than much other poetry from ancient times," Males stated. "Neither in Celtic, Slavic, nor other Germanic areas of Europe do we find anything comparable. This gives us a unique opportunity to approach the cultures that flourished here in the north of Europe before Christianity's final victory.”
The Boldness and Creativity of Late Pagan Literature
Some of the most important Norwegian pagan literature was published in the ninth and 10th centuries. In the 850s, the poet Bragi developed a new literary form known as skaldic poetry, which largely celebrated the exploits of kings with allusions to the Norse gods included. From the early 900s, or possibly earlier, the Hávamál (Words of the High One) emerged, featuring a vast collection of stories, wisdom, and even magical knowledge.
A half-century later, the Völuspá (The Prophecy of the Seeress) provided insight into how Norse pagans perceived their world. This epic recounts the gods' creation of the world from chaos and foretells its ultimate destruction in Ragnarok (echoing the Book of Revelation in Christianity).
Odin holds bracelets and leans on his spear while looking towards the völva in Völuspá, drawing by Lorenz Frolich, 1895. (Public Domain)
Skaldic poetry became a core element of Norse pagan culture, celebrated for its intricate structure and intellectual challenge. The complexity of these works required poets to master advanced techniques, while audiences needed familiarity with poetic expressions known as kennings. These figurative phrases included metaphors like "the horse of the sea" for a ship, "rain of swords" for battle, and "Odin's drink" for poetry.
Males believes that Völuspá was likely composed in the late 10th century within the court of Haakon Jarl, also known as Haakon the Powerful, in Lade (modern-day Trondheim). As Norway's last pagan ruler, Haakon Jarl governed from 970 to 995, descending from a noble family in Northern Norway.
His negative portrayal in Snorri Sturluson's writings and other sagas may stem from the influence of Olaf Tryggvason, the Christian king who succeeded him. According to Males, Völuspá reflects a period of religious transition, as it mixes Christian poetic elements with distinctively pagan themes.
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Petter Jensen, a recent graduate from the University of Oslo's Department of Linguistics and Scandinavian Studies, shares Males' interest in Norse literature. He points out that our understanding of pre-Christian European religions is limited due to the scarcity of original sources.
"We have very few sources on how people practiced pagan religions in Europe outside the Roman Empire and ancient Greece," Jensen explained to Science Norway.
For instance, Celtic pagan traditions in Ireland and England have fascinated many, but much of what we believe about them comes from later Christian writers rather than firsthand accounts. This has led to a blend of fact and fiction in popular portrayals of Celtic religious practices.
Males also expresses concern over another distortion or limiting factor in the study of the nncient religion, and that is the heavy reliance on archaeological finds to interpret Norse paganism. He argues that media narratives often prioritize material discoveries over literary analysis.
Pendant version of Thor’s Hammer, the Old Norse Religion's equivalent to the Christian cross during later Viking Age. (Public Domain).
"As a philologist and literary scholar, I won't hide that I find it frustrating that research on paganism in the Nordic region has almost entirely been left to archaeologists," he said.
Pagan Syncretism Rejected by Norway’s First Christian Kings
One defining feature of Norse paganism was its openness to adopting new gods and beliefs. Males suggests that the Norse did not view Christianity as an immediate threat but rather as a legitimate source of sacred knowledge they could use to expand their pantheon.
"If a new god appeared and was seen as beneficial, they simply added that god to their pantheon. This was likely how many pagans in Norway thought when Jesus appeared," Males explained, offering fascinating insight into an ancient spiritual mindset.
The Völuspá is a particularly mesmerizing text from the modern perspective, as it offers a distinctly pagan narrative of creation and destruction, serving as an alternative to Genesis and the Book of Revelation in the Bible.
The poem not only celebrates Haakon Jarl's dedication to the old gods but also asserts the validity of Norse beliefs in contrast to Christianity. According to Males, the confident pagans of Nidaros saw themselves as as rightful heirs to a proud and enduring tradition, which they did not intend to surrender even as the popularity of Christianity continued to grow in Scandinavia and Europe as a whole.
Much of Norse poetry, including Vellekla by the skald Einar Helgason (Skálaglamm), emerged from the pagan circles at Lade. This poem praises Haakon Jarl for his role in preserving the pagan faith, describing him as a leader who "makes the grass grow on the land again."
Jensen notes that these poets displayed strong confidence in their beliefs, resisting the growing influence of Christianity. "People did not view their Norse pagan faith as inferior when confronted with the new Christian religion. They probably thought, 'we'll handle this well,'" he suggests.
However, this religious tolerance diminished under Olaf Tryggvason and Olaf Haraldsson (later Saint Olaf), 11th century Norwegian kings who were Christian themselves and insisted that everyone else in their kingdoms should be too. Christianity eventually became an exclusive and compulsory faith, marking a significant departure from the previous religious flexibility.
Illustration for Olav Tryggvasons saga, featuring Haakon Jarl, by Christian Krogh, 1890s. (Public Domain).
In his master's thesis, Jensen discusses how Haakon Jarl was celebrated by poets for performing proper pagan rituals. However, when Snorri Sturluson later chronicled these stories, he likely downplayed their religious significance.
"By the time Snorri lived, paganism had been a taboo for two hundred years," Jensen explains. “As a result, many details of pre-Christian Norway were likely omitted or altered to align with the Christian worldview of Snorri's time.”
Males further argues that Snorri misunderstood certain aspects of Norse mythology, possibly due to gaps in his knowledge of the older language and traditions.
Nazi Distortion of the Old Norse Religion
Unfortunately, the reputation of Norse pagan mythology was badly damaged when it was adapted by the Nazis (and the infamous Norwegian WWII collaborator Quisling) to fit their warped ideology. This led to an unfair association between the Norse religion and fascism, whites supremacy and genocide.
Black Sun occult symbol of floor of Wewelsburg Castle in German, home of the Nazi SS, which was decorated with symbolism melding Norse mythology with occult traditions. (Dirk Vorderstrasse/CC BY-SA 2.0)
"This has made researchers hesitant to engage with Old Norse mythology for a long time," Males noted with regret. He hopes that academia is finally ready to normalize research into Norse paganism again, since this rich and vibrant belief system played such an essential role in maintaining social cohesion and creating a collective sense of purpose and meaning in the Viking Age and before.
Rethinking the Rich Norse Religious Tradition
Males challenges the traditional approach of religious historians, who often trace belief systems far into the past to understand their essence. He argues that Norse mythology was dynamic and continuously evolving, integrating new influences as time passed.
He cites the widely known myth of the Midgard Serpent—a massive sea creature encircling the world's oceans—that may have originated from cultural exchanges with Ireland.
"Over time, the people of the North became obsessed with the Midgard Serpent, embracing its powerful symbol of chaos and destruction in the world," he explained.
Thor battles the Midgard Serpent during Ragnarok, painting by Emil Doepler. (Public Domain).
Rather than being a static belief system, Norse paganism adapted and grew, reflecting the curious nature of its followers. This flexibility, however, was ultimately replaced by the rigidity of early medieval Christianity, marking the end of an incredibly interesting era in Northern European religious history.
Top image: A scene from Ragnarök, the final battle between Odin and Fenrir and Freyr and Surtr, painting by Emil Doepler.
Source: Public Domain.
By Nathan Falde
