The history of Mesoamerica is complex and filled with various closely related indigenous tribes and civilizations who thrived in its various regions before the sudden arrival of the Spanish conquistadors. One of these is the Totonac culture, one of the most enigmatic in Mesoamerica. It thrived in the modern-day Mexican states of Puebla, Veracruz, and Hidalgo, for several centuries before the Spanish conquest. The Totonacs were known for their architectural ingenuity, their sprawling cities, their expertise in agriculture, and their commercial dominance in the region. Throughout their existence, they played major roles in shaping the destiny of pre-Columbian Mexico. Always challenged by the larger and more dominant neighbors such as the Aztecs, the Totonacs often dwelt in their shadow. However, with the arrival of the Spaniards, their fate was sealed forever. What happened in that fated year of 1519?
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The Totonacs and the Fate of Mexico
The Totonacs trace their origins to the eastern coastal plains and mountainous regions of Mexico. The name "Totonac" itself is derived from the Nahuatl term Totonacapan, which roughly translates to "the place of the Totonacs." Scholars suggest that the root of the word might be translated to “people of the hot earth”, perhaps related to their place of origin. Either way, major archaeological evidence clearly points to distinct Totonac origins starting in the Early Classic Period (200 to 900 AD).
Still, there are some indications that their roots run even deeper than this, and that they had a presence in the Gulf Coast region for a very long time. Their “heartland” was centered around some of their most important cities, which were Cempoala, Papantla, and El Tajín. During the Classic Period in Mesoamerica, El Tajín became a major cultural and ceremonial center, and was considered one of the largest cities in the region.
The excavated remains in these cities clearly indicate that Totonacs were very advanced for their time and rivalled the greatest achievements of the Aztecs and the Maya. Some remarkable structures were unearthed from the dense jungles in the area, such as the so-called “Pyramid of the Niches”, which is unlike any other Mesoamerican pyramid. Its intricate architecture and design shows that the Totonacs had a very advanced understanding of engineering, and astronomy as well.
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One of Carl Nebel's drawings of the Pyramid of the Niches. (Public Domain)
In time, El Tajín’s steady rise in prominence brought about the apex of Totonac influence and power in the region, as the city became a hub for trade, politics, and religion. Their other major cities, Papantla and Cempoala, were likewise successful. Cempoala was the first urban settlement that the Spaniards saw and visited after their landing on the American continent.
The Totonacs broke the inherent idea the Spaniards have, seeing the Mesoamerican peoples as savages. The amazing architecture they encountered upon arrival was proof enough that the Totonacs had great ingenuity, deep-set religious beliefs, and a true artistic vision in life.
The city of El Tajín, still reigning as the most important Totonac site, was well-known for its architectural ingenuity. The site’s foremost object, the Pyramid of the Niches, boasts 365 separate niches, which symbolized its ritual significance and the connection with the solar year. The precise alignment of the pyramid with celestial phenomena indicates the Totonacs' advanced knowledge of astronomy.
Cities of Wonder
El Tajin, however, did not survive to be discovered by the Spaniards. It was devastated and burned much earlier, around 1230 AD. The likely cause of its destruction were the invading Chichimeca nomadic tribes, considered by the Totonacs and the Aztecs as “barbarians”. El Tajin was abandoned and remained forgotten and buried by the jungle growth until 1785, when a local accidentally discovered it in what was at that time a remote and inaccessible area. Subsequent exploration showed the might that the Totonacs once had.
The city was meticulously planned, and had many ceremonial plazas, pyramids, ballcourts, and several residential areas. El Tajin boasted as many as 20 ballcourts, which tells us that the classic Mesoamerican ballgame was very important for the Totonacs and had both cultural and ritual significance. Keep in mind that the ballgame was not just a sport - it was a sacred activity, connected to complex cosmological and religious beliefs.
El Tajín, a Totonac ruin in the municipality of Papantla, Veracruz, Mexico. (CC BY-SA 2.0)
Having been pushed south by the invading Chichimeca tribes, the Totonacs had to abandon their ruined metropolis of El Tajin and moved to a new home. Thus they established two new major cities, these being Papantla and Cempoala. They endured for much longer and became even grander than El Tajin in some regards. These towns became the focal point of their homeland, which was known as Totonacapan, which at its peak boasted a population of roughly 250,000 people, and 50 towns both large and small. Cempoala itself had a population of 30,000, which was a very high number for the time.
View of the main square of the ruins of the city of Cempoala, capital Totonac Nation, the first to establish a military alliance with the Castilian armies to attack the dominions of Aztec Triple Alliance or Ēxcān Tlahtolōyān. (Public Domain)
Of course, the foremost sights in these cities were lavish and great temples, since religion was a core element of Totonac life. It influences every aspect of their society, as was often the case in Mesoamerica. The Totonacs worshiped a pantheon of gods and goddesses, many of them associated with fertility, the natural elements, or celestial bodies.
One of the most important gods was Tajín, after whom the city of El Tajín was named. He was the rain god, and many rituals in his honor were conducted. These involved offerings, sacrifices, ceremonies, and religious dances. One of the iconic such ceremonies was the “Dance of the Flyers”, meant to appease the gods and bring rain. The dance survives to this day, even centuries after the Totonac culture dwindled and essentially disappeared.
Dwellers in the Land
Agriculture was a foremost aspect of the Totonac economy. In their homeland, around the Gulf Coast, lands were fertile and allowed them to cultivate many crops, including maize, squash, chilies, beans, and others. Cacao was also sought after and had both economic and ceremonial value. It was also heavily exploited by the later arriving Spaniards.
But the especially famous plant that they grew was vanilla, derived from the Vanilla planifolia orchid, which thrived in their homeland. The cultivation and trade of vanilla became a hallmark of Totonac culture, earning them the title of "The People of Vanilla." The plant contributed greatly to their reputation as master traders, as they engaged in extensive trade networks across the region. They exchanged goods as well, including pottery, textiles, and obsidian, which some neighbors found very precious, especially Aztecs.
A ceramic Totonac statuette. (Public Domain)
The Arrival of the Spaniards
In 1519, Hernan Cortes led a massive expedition from Spain, arriving on the American continent determined to explore the land and conquer it for the good of the Spanish realm. His great ships, loaded with soldiers and cargo, landed in the close vicinity of Cempoala, the capital of the Totonac culture. And he soon made himself known. Indicating his arrival in peace, he entered the city where he was met with the ruler of the Totonacs, Xicomecoatl. In just a day, Hernan Cortes managed to make the Totonacs his first and foremost allies in the new land. The Spaniards were seen as something akin to Gods, and Xicomecoatl quickly realized that they could help him solve several territorial problems.
The Totonac leader quickly made friends with the Spanish commander and explained to him the great issue of the Totonacs - they were under the oppressive yoke of the Aztecs and their great leader Moctezuma. Subjugated and made to pay tribute, they desperately wanted their independence. And Xicomecoatl quickly realized that the Spanish were strong enough to achieve this for him. Hernan Cortes understood the potential as well, as he always intended to turn the tribes against one another, and thus gain control of the new land. And so it was that Hernan Cortes made his first allies in the Americas, just a few days after arrival. These allies were the Totonacs.
"Hernán Cortés enters Cempoala and is received by the Cacique Gordo" by Juan González and Miguel González, 1698. (Public Domain)
The Totonacs eagerly provided the Spanish with troops, supplies, workers, translators, and intelligence - all of which were crucial assets that helped the Spanish defeat the Aztecs and bring about the downfall of their great empire. And even though this alliance helped the Totonacs to free themselves from Aztec domination, it also marked the beginning of a new era of challenges. With the arrival of the Spanish came a new set of devastating consequences, such as forced labor under the Spanish encomienda system, many diseases that decimated populations, and the eventual destruction and disappearance of indigenous institutions. In time, the Totonacs were forced to adopt Christianity and were slowly eroded as a distinct people. Their culture eventually disappeared, and they were assimilated into the Spanish way of life that swept over Mesoamerica.
Totonacs in the Modern Age
Today, the Totonacs still exist as a distinct people and are recognized as one of Mexico's numerous indigenous peoples. There are many communities in their heartland region that still live in areas where Totonacs dwelt for centuries. In recent years, there were increasing efforts to help preserve and promote Totonac culture, driven by initiatives such as the Cumbre Tajín festival. This festival is held every year in the city of Papantla, and helps people to celebrate Totonac heritage, through dances, music, traditional crafts, and much more. The festival is very popular and draws visitors from across the world, helping them learn more about the Totonac identity and past.
What is more, their role in the history of Mesoamerica is increasingly recognized, and they are seen as one of the several cornerstones of Mexican identity. Their contributions to the art and culture of Mesoamerica cannot be overlooked. After all, the marvelous remains of ancient cities such as El Tajin serve to remind us of their long-lost glory.
However, their foremost role in Mesoamerican history is, in the end, their alliance with the Spaniards. This is what they are remembered for in the first place, since they generally allowed them to enter the continent without opposing them. This alliance practically sealed the fate of Mesoamerica and its many nations, which all fell in just a few decades. If the Totonacs were to oppose the newcomers and deny them entry, we can only wonder how the history of the region would unfold. But ultimately, the tribes lacked unity, and that contributed to their swift demise.
The Face of the New World
The Totonacs, with their great heritage and their significance, are a good example of the diversity and the complexity of Mesoamerican societies. The Zapotecs, the Mixtecs, Aztecs, Totonacs, the Chichimecas, and the Olmecs, all had major roles to play in the shaping and the demise of Mesoamerican civilizations.
Top image: Totonac ceramic figure and ruins at El Tajín. Source: Sailko/CC BY 3.0, Horacio_Fernandez/ CC BY 3.0
References
Austin, A. L. and Lujan, L. L. 2005. Mexico's Indigenous Past. University of Oklahoma Press.
Meyer, M. and Beezley, W. 2010. The Oxford History of Mexico. Oxford University Press.
Rinke, S. 2023. Conquistadors and Aztecs: A History of the Fall of Tenochtitlan. Oxford University Press.
The Totonacs are an indigenous people of Mesoamerica, historically located in the modern-day Mexican states of Veracruz, Puebla, and Hidalgo. They are known for their rich cultural heritage, advanced architectural achievements, agricultural expertise, and their role in the history of pre-Columbian Mexico.
The Totonac’s key structures include the Pyramid of the Niches, ballcourts, and ceremonial temples, reflecting their advanced engineering, religious beliefs, and astronomical knowledge. Their architectural legacy, including intricate urban planning and unique construction techniques, showcases their cultural and engineering prowess in Mesoamerica.
